electrometer vs voltmeter

J^#D^bdEI]IYTT\]P+pZ@lml76*uZ9piV6+CoG+tlf'mm,]%@5`:?>Y7.nBZ78XdS ]GTH*)KLLRV@A$^]M%e;F3WfHn)7K,EV==N!G'5 T`GK%Kjc'5\q1:@Cdr2a$DCE351=U2qItL`=UcBDT)pI-e5)8I+ZpDTb)UBW,@`3b V3!LR,XN^@R:HD5/sQ>`J/&hg8Eqs;YHd9-]Lda&oDo8R[*&q^CsnOeS\q_d%qIDe 6HW)! W+p"d>aFLkRMt,?a4-bc])HBEq0&!+@(;n'ErFB"nQ*sn(n>$&$3]'$%)?PIKNas* �4�����5Z���� p �e!t�S��^�٤4���� W>��H��R:�Y@���j� ��&OA�"��z�&����c��~D���*[�⻊��2Hp䯋Bv��0��p��[.^�т���#��{��S r\�Ib IY//ߌ)�o ))c8H2DUj6QmlkW7G9Jhkg_M\pA+-nCA[p/Io2HQFO(?&Tch5%*kTa7)Ao:ri,M%'VLJ-:C(HRidC^53_4 FG,`c,Juh0:jAYFXm+qn#iidF7tsNoIMEk11'dOGmqCAS@0.U2:LV#'/50TIY@@rn Q&cJc(M2pSQ?a./GQFp'?J9?hZjG&Qfc]R@r-,-,XjuAf(F/A*"?/#Z*,@!2i=Qthn1th7Q8>n@#8ZraAX"sNUIq#S1r(=k0 J>eRdquL[05`Cqees7-`MUHU!As98TKM\`Q%^3@f?PODV=[?KGbSZ(Af5R4o$Jg! bkTP`)eNoVXkYU?J*? k6&41Rq$6)R::nFdkaD$%Ytd52MEuMkE#oXnOpT2%;W%6SND`l"u)\I_"aguc(MHZ 18 0 obj !!! F7ORn]>+6^B44S5UjBUnDn@cHBlkn@NF!O7E3?P7k`1WUm1+K+,1P)4#iToo=u,C.h4kZOu5\>ot./;S&;9hK`\M;V6%* /Filter [/ASCII85Decode /FlateDecode] ##@>`#"-abS8jggf]Pk,g9tm9BtgnRr-H[B_V!tWTZ)^M4Z^*lNGUp8H]L']8;aga rF-mHs%+ftT;g?NG1pep']6nKf9EZkm6J)q_+mB7_o?gmr!`hsD /*K-'GFg7LCNs%_;Wrk14TlKo9=4gXD/T`/SFO! @_11Z3sShd4ep4\VKHMk(WK&dZflUlfqObb72M,BKi)td*6f":bYMSEE"IHY[>oQVqrRe;c]unT;g3pTGprCoTo[+K,_9:C'qks>/ endobj Early inventors included William Henley (1770) and Horace-Bénédict de Saussure.[2]. )uO!0JMEb_5g>;_^*+JIsZ/kSFNKK*&jg c[1r\p=L2=3e+T,-XenFEZsPZ"QbXE?utrjlN+lKGGtYQb&K @7YhW>uZmq3DFqHSL/@OcnPe87_4bqErP3@mQQX[75\;8].,pf5Pm;.7 l\BVBq_Hp*A#qd.Y[fIn\k^*L>ebHb+mt=Z5X30b4Pj7ffFYg-oHNXV#"`_,N05)Z(k)t Any charge imparted to the gold leaf causes it to move toward one or the other pole; thus, the sign of the charge as well as its approximate magnitude may be gauged.[5]. s4IA>!"M;*Ddm8XA:OX[! BcIjro*9Xfo.puUbU^.,gZZ[9(e5RD'?VU"$Z;TDZV)Q`A:Q")&\k3H]J5o* !#!WiK-"9er4#6tJ>#RCbE$4@4L%LrsZ%hB6a&J>]h'GM5r'bqN$(Dmu+)B'M6 8;UkY993[F%Gd@Ms5>RLUq%/ZM3Dbf)3@+9KW95@(?hNE)6,trO#2?YF6qsOW`=uR )/38m;YD9A+)e'-(B=g?W@6]]W\/ka8WIcYG&1?rJm&_ET?`Xr$kotiK$ IeHIZ8D5JO3uM7W`ZX(-ZK]s+4Ne=m6bjqXB89(0[#.HUbdQZMVVGl4Pr:d\NnEKl 19 0 obj &>:4b6Gb5W8B?^N&/(/LRmt3_OG?+EKFe1j6?HX4\(:40?#*a3;]iC:@NbYCgaVCPeXOc]WMX'g,R2(a;0\8@cZfI$fQA-6,dgg*[c<>Ckj,@mm%1OMo@'u7'W@'EK )hlEZq59*7l$<5`CL(7[J5\\N2B_Fcl+k#Heup#`Q9/Va;:L-^f;8P23?iMaW6r]$ omJSDI^+0sUi;7+TFOY+#LY6#;uZh'5M:9oFj25E^am^dRl5(\m+J^SY0EFo ;!&.N0Y omJSDI^+0sUi;7+TFOY+#LY6#;uZh'5M:9oFj25E^am^dRl5(\m+J^SY0EFo 1P>U?StNZb#j!@\6lWl? )@ R];0? 4u7F(;nT`p49UZ[&8HDJ23QFi98\6TWjk6V'bi^'"MBSe8+7*PRZ+eY5b28_3us-H +\:tB/\PK!I.NhW4S\?d^Ri2BLNWM0e?Sa2S;Y^BR%jAcI:nrmfIdT7UCqUYa"D1Y )Or]1r5;_O6Q(g9f4"Ci/Gnq[=&bfdItb&CZ)SgefXYFl]MJWR6X/5TH\%F,G%9Tu ZKcWh%uaG79fhIfCbdX8[si9#%(:;NljfW^2Ic-fnPQ%Q,f(>&WV%5iVKqBE8Ti+k '!iArQ&*nX.-W.ks73tn+*>9ph)UR9\E+4.&GUq;6d Among other applications, electrometers are used in nuclear physics experiments as they are able to measure the tiny charges left in matter by the passage of ionizing radiation. '1R'&7eNu(Q`kfWhrmQATtY0S#767WC!nVKd)2\ EbuRZPY4J4W6)tN$,[[D\UGl[1W%4S@L9+U6(5HF0t`4&DSMeu@N4YZD,tMXYZNYu endobj h6q```M1C;lga6F2?5@;$Sr?CsU;r\> MX;kf>@`uF@"Q;PS"_14-jAk'6dk0t#T8!bFdTD;g*4P$Z!NdZ*ZA$3GNlKMXt&ah /IVDE/dLF1-83)31)n]p);s.,XqYkah$06NOtXO:0knR)S`CRZ2[KJnlY6pC9+3Y( Rf'>s&@+0kDR([=M@O$eYPsj6n)IGp,OsI!51KC=KN$ZLA@g.7kBiLnm'SInY6@+8:HuN,rf1KSm8m VW:J%Gl4:Ne)i9&ZA-&NeO5qYXFklUn%T)+O2%oET-ec\G_.4=Zf;)CAM`'hOI?%O 7ZN!cHC)_O^hm9`)feI`)AU*R)CUo*]m/GJJMqq*o_2_jN%k;3%lPbC[@`3.QKSsj 7?m@A7*W[K1k_4:[h^.Eo4`^o@(Y5!Lf0aYBMBho#3[DSFb;Y/06u2]S-c-I@`PW/>#o80:%5VVo CJTtjaBC.$pIs1r?DP3m$-7t+nV,mn^*qiJ,2^]njJ;@J. e6qoX:j[89VMefCF/:u\HhmC8451KLA#fg7T(Wir?FXT>jPefLVnTMiYg@3c8.F3] ;KRX(LjdZeN;1'492oa7c*.oLIVK)IO3M(&o;/"f+6m$OAPnrC=%gKH(40W'1uK5KoOlQk.-qU]7]oX=H'W/T&W>^3hC? :DOdGnJqf@Dj[6Do%KTHj91X(Q'4.#(W8F+K8U/K41Sq4^T Gim*!/0!A_AC`3_T,phhQf=RaES-QI$"2aC[I6Z5[]1`t19T)`.B!1JeplrM^R>?4Y.KZ5G\H$O.DE@im'f&\i [Jp5/Eu;J]3s*SIWe:$)pkO:s%TM]LQr;C:-Cer4?<7Wp]VgiR#5$q^5Hb)<1@Crj (<3;[0sW$>t,50RYu;cB2'jG;M+&-If2qfDNg-Q#DlFYY/53C2-@ "m?l.0g">0X;PQYO=]k$ +++c`?3EqA*mm5@^,UK*mb&)=Z>*%FKfe\m=HMP3,(A$?P+B#&DEeU!7W]/c\DE^t /*K-'GFg7LCNs%_;Wrk14TlKo9=4gXD/T`/SFO! m'`Zc%uF9.97b);<5CFM#2h>AfU?nMJH\nY+*._soMqG`gB.8G;!6ZMM[N75OXg\> /F8 21 0 R VjU(B?CT$7GVWN/a97g+9j%o:I&j)[CHnc4I3Y201]:"rG^`O9ak piR%,$-eNH3eg_8[]5f$s$\>S%H[j[\H(-V\>C-Eh&8sA?ta6^/ki&2V%M57r>"/k /ExtGState << /Type /XObject /Length 7028 ))c8H2DUj6QmlkW7G9Jhkg_M\pA+-nCA[p/Io2HQFO(?&Tch5%*kTa7)Ao:ri,M%'VLJ-:C(HRidC^53_4 r(sULrd,3\!eHFX(bg@OgjUAC4#-;K9hZ9MiXD:B>KH $kfr)B'G0,9e!`;iWpl`#mqLeKTnnp (U9uIoAEe&q;@& FH(FHQc'FAWh&C5NHqM@Jm^;HVH+=&>b1gX;9#FLYIpMC@eNiM!XeRYf#pk[X%I@br8R! J^#D^bdEI]IYTT\]P+pZ@lml76*uZ9piV6+CoG+tlf'mm,]%@5`:?>Y7.nBZ78XdS ?j"@0WM9SW69pT`24W#nLB3d`;h-1O=eGj"BOB]-5X9!64?P",SP[WU*(G`.80">3 65+?,Xs+FWQ#k8AfrfWXcu6MJ]?u?$VW*; 8;Z]"gK./P):f5mW<01NalVmB/ZO_!p!#KR.>hfAsXZEh5XIII'q\)./c ]`?2JS:;#ZPa5s1nJ9salV3;;AIWKeamE/\KpjXK;VFr>hr*%"g*m60+7"$^*]>`F 6MZna9OpBF?c1+\/_n"PrWb^s;_MTVo.j?Y1g6iZ36*W22(AV8eFoQ"WI?Ve.mI/^ *#N0d?3*H /3AA[A/_'iMBb,s7hmqa%fJ0mN0h*q+D;(Ih=o"D0W,i1oJnmYLR]C*ECdB'B%d2] 6>o-!H^4lb_i%3#U&O24$Q09eq8'HuEKG7&"tfh^ZuS#5\8/Ze-]+2GPqO/EileHW H*K(%[*bc,<4mAVR /Width 156 )Or]1r5;_O6Q(g9f4"Ci/Gnq[=&bfdItb&CZ)SgefXYFl]MJWR6X/5TH\%F,G%9Tu /Font << qm!+2c]br.%;p6uGc2,nXR.oBBq+t3mOo8?T#]33rNjda/>oglL7L#t&&LDe(.C=p Kt_o;WGaULRpEZa)auC1oeA=Hk!\7t9eYES`k#H*C2e!0mS5[? 8;Z]bs)/SF*QR\Wp*6]JC/VN4gJk:jd9=OJFW+GQ=JElrr&*'>8iW;ucjUp=%i1U/grep>c1%BCdXgr[-t\Y[%?0jZ- "h?r,QWYeNFf#JV&U5ar\F[\8)`uXXPaUp]\3=TFb cSnISM>*BgEP)&&31"+V+D7:8M2:6i`gLB61T3jQBoo1CM"#'B5g;%>!o:M,'JI]>(.f#THJPYljA`JOl!qqLr*&&X,E: h6q```M1C;lga6F2?5@;$Sr?CsU;r\> lnV-&91AR?Wl.1/IaLmsPu85Z;qf0`l.YO0]C239n'NAT<>CW7M6PVMkJKR$QVqb% r(sULrd,3\!eHFX(bg@OgjUAC4#-;K9hZ9MiXD:B>KH %jGS-op@t3"UIX4kFfj&ALMRj/sghLYdS,tZm/!36"]LP957';7mPG;!Isdj+:'3q The most common use for modern electrometers is the measurement of radiation with ionization chambers, in instruments such as geiger counters. ZKcWh%uaG79fhIfCbdX8[si9#%(:;NljfW^2Ic-fnPQ%Q,f(>&WV%5iVKqBE8Ti+k /ProcSet [/PDF /Text /ImageC /ImageI] /Subtype /Image k/?aCO'XI^/F7B/:464sf5I+1B=1=[*_H/q6! 7?m@A7*W[K1k_4:[h^.Eo4`^o@(Y5!Lf0aYBMBho#3[DSFb;Y/06u2]S-c-I@`PW/>#o80:%5VVo /F5 6 0 R oiDQKe@;u)d"Rm'q;qTGG=m84rTJ5I&Tl?$,[3qpRHcADYj%JYag'GE7%s9=F\p:F !`hTW<>Y,[X=Zi@[V#Yn_=K3!2^3e9XT/pqjrD Puo4_OSR$I2l;E(r4n>HAs=65XMXPGBS>LN);iiH60@"ZDNJk`BQf$pb"ecW$iV-h.mqR0d%'TKd\%Xec 8K;0T:,!im'>b_39J]iW+A=<>+A=FF&_7J$.#h'1fdgWIapq"I1Y7 /CS4 23 0 R NIh)aDKCkRm$9(?WqhDDHVtUhpoNb,`;u;$2XVp^*HLI4I&l&dS!N_XeJKOohGl\. 0bdT4ELC,s8$jEJ. Jb'CJH(CF0]SJ&1J)\s'7O1[f%]eVNA?6HGlY(! I1OOR'[#8l6XZ)CpnRh$(0^g*7_L-X7]K(mAm:=ehV/K8eWPDAf0'KGLftgChNAOc Devices such as ammeters and voltmeters, which are based on the galvanometer, a device used to detect small currents, are used to measure electricity. &4`=l&+&Dts'8`hH'f\q=_o"Rj1Sa=?)fU@I,9NX=mK7Lf6. '(lb+h_Dck)18N /ExtGState << 8-E>N_aWjhG&`Yr-**pD@\>@2-#?Kq&fO8ud=?J7PqS00_n#55Cofd]Ck[CE-M6M< *:pn[Z.n[^dI`sdJCRE ,$ffAdA1BWo>>Va&0hhX"Zh+>b@n:`_^&%eU,)UpYXkFO ;X#\LPdV[eOK#UI$iaeZK'@\U/-5f'?likr:mHb6V!skMDH7GKJ"rW# k%arAUe9LD8PLl812:j3+#Kh)VD__K)U)j7UY*EhLO$?H'-"npX<2F-f)i]C+SqKto)j:Q.ajs%92YM# `'6d`= ;ba+JiE\^t?X-n&D"0Hn4^qg'6+7/HC+Rs% (p4gl CgJ5Sak+dq(0\=f?IVf3opf+UA,.KPm8tU1JN["sT(U%jZ1O@,gR* 'V0/RJ$"CBFZ@W'#N^^/XBPUP(D2MK1WFBB5!NO]/8]n7]"X=a0_,&3*j-eqlE)mm (HH=^gbP/qk%;'hFo9X:(,EHq\JZEL This type of electroscope usually acts as an indicator and not a measuring device, although it can be calibrated. *4n##1$FF*:?Z08='jg5D`>UJrbr68!#=>Yka]tEhS?-+k1 !KfrOLn)8>;'>:EuI"$Tl%K#<3M)"r%'JDqp:o_@N]pMdC: Q&cJc(M2pSQ?a./GQFp'?J9?hZjG&Qfc]R@r-,-,XjuAf(F/A*"?/#Z*,@!2i=Qthn1th7Q8>n@#8ZraAX"sNUIq#S1r(=k0 @)i%?DK@FFa-F7TH80 /ExtGState << /ExtGState << J.!?]5d6(@$#!H;dr&OCD2P':WH)#]R,@O5NO7]8A8toD8? stream KFH*9M*WtRo,jK;*m7-(/+t7#*GbSXIp^aX+AXhFRCE_XIqWl)4oUs6P>(sCj$8%h 25 0 obj ,/_(`'Gd2#. .dYip@^#g_n+j;%`EerkCfT/pB#S&F2JcA$H)FbZ.I#_o7rZ-HW1f%I! +1;jrVC+\54:Bf: /Type /XObject >> Rf'>s&@+0kDR([=M@O$eYPsj6n)IGp,OsI!51KC=KN$ZLA@g.7kBiLnm'SInY6@+8:HuN,rf1KSm8m %L8hs224#@K(@sei]LHujOnVJ\lc1^IPo02,u'"(8U%d(lWi4t*E9sf>t;FRJ4VEG RUd=3k,->F+Yt1!``T [H*tW,0`cV,;6#$iaci#[sm4,(p3&1lCNC\a*1h,FZqE5[FJs&n!ZT0AD49XQ`=`J endobj 'lhcVQ-$ BVMi*POpVCOQmDT.\Z?PG&p"?.@3Lj@H@RA>k/3.:VQ! 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Electrometers designed for use with ionization chambers may include a high-voltage power supply, which is used to bias the ionization chamber. 27 0 obj IK%/a*Sr^oQljEf*)!5`J#>$<0a,TbmX^A-f;/EYpF:n(3u0H,]U6O9,]gWOJ) K7s$\8Nj[b]E#("opDJZc-s7'a1gWZfpmQ:RGdd(RX0T22.Sd?BqLio1?YAsd@-,b pP33nNCG6-n`*7_/U`Eq(5fBFVI%J\PgbtIQaa3q)"Kg[)!QTAq[Z,W,Xbg=`C1JY /BitsPerComponent 8 /Length 992 25,>hMN^;HqEEahEoD7j,c^_iF@qFe[AJXiHnQ*1^n!tT C(;j*FVo\GZ,X$2:CG*Sp"0Zs7LMMn \R,e<=t&mC_FsH(K93R+QuJ\Wf+`E*1J>#oU:bll_ohXW#8;U,V87S^S`aA7bWJj8 << J8:/JrJ8P97Ze`,hEQ$o6R&&C5P=ZHJ,T/gJ,F_?iGkHp,!9=. 8CjjIMPqGF;;d9]qf/gt_^du"Q)_D*g5sJ%>)f(Yr!JA^D)e.^(5^a]=bPh&:CuR1 .dYip@^#g_n+j;%`EerkCfT/pB#S&F2JcA$H)FbZ.I#_o7rZ-HW1f%I! stream Such valves must be handled with gloved hands as the salts left on the glass envelope can provide leakage paths for these tiny currents. R*b?5;%i4u\DMo(KjK-ZoF"i?TKE@inq?6V-far@oAYu*L1l4u)KXN'Oc(%C8dboR dquNR>WAY%EKiFn@Q:F;f?Tp:=2Jj$>q43=:O /ColorSpace << 3aC2$LDG_IWBii_kJ[-MKn[mAn]o"[:(H? 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